Already in mishnaic times the tied document was a rarity, so that some of the Sages were not familiar with it and its halakhot. The preparation of such a document was intentionally rendered complicated. It had to be folded and tied several times, and the early commentaries disagree with regard to the details of these procedures. The tied document differed from an ordinary document in how the witnesses signed it, as these signatures were affixed to the reverse side of the document. In addition to these differences, the signing of the document was dated as having taken place a year after the actual signing of the document. Most of the halakhot discussed in this chapter address not tied documents but ordinary ones. The Sages instituted many ordinances intended to prevent forgery and falsification of written documents, including the following: The final line of text in a document has no legal standing and should consist of a review of the main points of the document. Also, the witnesses should sign close to the final line of text, not leaving a large enough gap for words to be added at a later time. Effort should be made to ensure that the document is written in a uniform manner, with no words written outside the lines. Whenever an erasure or correction is required, a validation of the correction must be recorded in the body of the document. It is permitted to write a complete document on paper or parchment whose writing, including the witnesses’ signatures, had been erased. Nevertheless, if the text of the document is written over an erasure while the signatures are signed on a part of the paper whose text had not been erased, the document is not valid. If there is a contradiction between two statements in the text of a document, or if there is some ambiguity, the meaning of the document is derived from the summation at the end of the document, unless there is a disparity in the recording of the sum of the transaction in the different parts of the document, in which case the lowest sum mentioned is adopted. A document that has become accidentally erased or smudged may have its contents reprised in a replacement document and verified by the court, based on the testimony of the original witnesses. If a debt recorded in a promissory note is repaid in part, the creditor may keep the original promissory note and give the debtor a receipt for the amount paid. If the debt is paid in full, the creditor must return the promissory note to the debtor. If this is impossible, for example, in a case where the creditor claims that the promissory note has been lost or destroyed, a receipt is written for the debtor to prevent the creditor from demanding a repeat collection in the event the document is later found. The party who undertakes an obligation in a legal transaction, e.g., the debtor or seller in a loan or sale, may have a document written testifying to his obligation even without consulting the other party involved in the transaction. By contrast, a creditor or a purchaser of property may not write a document without the other party’s consent, as it is that other party who is undertaking the obligation. In documents concerning mutual obligations, both parties must give their consent. The beneficiary of the transaction recorded in a document is the one who must pay the cost of writing the document, e.g., the borrower, or the purchaser or renter of property. For documents in which both sides are beneficiaries, the cost is shared. A creditor cannot collect a debt from a guarantor without first attempting to collect the amount owed from the debtor, unless he has undertaken to become an unconditional guarantor, or unless the creditor stipulated from the outset that he maintains the right to collect from either party, according to his choice. If a guarantor takes a loan from a creditor and gives it to a debtor, the guarantor becomes solely responsible for repaying the debt to the creditor. A guarantor is obligated to repay a debt only if the guarantee was undertaken at the time of the loan. Nevertheless, if the guarantee was accompanied by an act of acquisition, or if it was accepted in the presence of the court, it is binding even if it was undertaken at a later time. When a creditor collects a debt from a guarantor, he can collect it only from property presently owned by him, as opposed to property sold to others after the time of the guarantee. If the guarantee was added as part and parcel of the text of the promissory note, he can collect the debt even from the guarantor’s liened property that has been sold. One who undertakes a guarantee to pay a marriage contract is not bound to honor his pledge, unless he is the father of the groom, or unless he accepted to act as an unconditional guarantor. Several other halakhot were discussed in this chapter as well. A promissory note or deed of sale is automatically considered to include the right of collection from liened property that has been sold, unless it explicitly states otherwise. According to most authorities, the right to collect a debt from property owned by the debtor at the time of the loan, even if such property was subsequently sold, is by Torah law.